Document Type

Article

Publication Date

7-6-2026

Journal / Book Title

Journal of Intelligence

Abstract

The relationships between cognitive abilities and mathematics skills are important to examine to help clarify how cognitive abilities promote mathematics development and inform why some individuals have difficulty acquiring mathematics skills. Meta-analyses of cognitive-mathematics relations can help summarize this research across a wide variety of test batteries and samples. This study compiled data from technical manuals of 122 norm-referenced standardized test batteries and included over 47,000 correlations from over 550 correlation matrices to summarize cognitive-mathematics relations using meta-analysis. The meta-analytic correlations were used to estimate cognitive-mathematics relations in an integrated model of cognitive abilities and mathematics skills. Fluid reasoning and comprehension-knowledge were two of the most consistent cognitive predictors of mathematics skills, and foundational mathematics skills (e.g., number sense and math fluency) were consistent predictors of advanced mathematics skills (e.g., math problem solving). A supplemental analysis examined how several narrow cognitive abilities (e.g., lexical knowledge, induction) predict mathematics skills. Results suggested that some narrow cognitive abilities, like general knowledge and general sequential reasoning, were consistent predictors of mathematics skills. This study summarizes a large amount of data from norm-referenced standardized test batteries to clarify how cognitive abilities predict mathematics skills. These results can inform both theoretical models of mathematics development and practical strategies when evaluating individuals who may have difficulty acquiring mathematics skills.

DOI

10.3390/jintelligence14070142

Rights

© 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.

Published Citation

Niileksela, C. R., Hajovsky, D. B., Cocar-Montenegro, F. P., Schneider, W. J., Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2026). Cognitive–Mathematics Relations: A Meta-Analysis of Norm-Referenced Standardized Test Batteries. Journal of Intelligence, 14(7), 142. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14070142

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